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摘要：This paper aims to reveal the rhetorical structure and the linguistic features of persuasive language in online advertisements of electronic products. Nowadays, the bulk of e-commerce is carried out in English, and it is often the case that non-native speakers are required to write different text types for various professional purposes, including promotional texts. This need has prompted the present study and the results have been used to build software to help native speakers of Spanish when writing promotional texts in English. The analysis reveals that these texts typically have two main rhetorical moves: one for identifying the product and another one for describing it. The latter move is further divided into two steps: one including objective features (size, weight, etc.) and the other focusing on persuading the potential customer. This is mainly achieved with the use of a relatively informal style (imperatives, contractions, clipping, subject/auxiliary omissions, etc.) and lexico-grammatical elements conveying positive evaluation (multiple modification, multal quantifying expressions, etc.). The findings show that online advertisements of electronic products may be regarded as a specific subgenre with particular macro- and microlinguistic characteristics, which have been identified in this paper for technical writing assistance. [Copyright The American University; published by Elsevier Ltd.]

摘要：Ellis addresses the use of the term 'young learner' in the ELT profession, which often refers to any learner under the age of 18. While used by private language providers, publishers, and exam boards, this term is rarely used by parents or professionals in mainstream education. With the increasing number of children and teenagers learning English globally, Ellis ponders if this term has become outdated. Adapted from the source document

摘要：This paper considers an alternative perspective to complement the existing body of research in child EFL/ESL. This perspective assumes that children's views are different from those of adults, and, since children are 'experts' of their own lives, it is worthwhile for adults to explore innovative ways in which their unique experiences and perspectives can be uncovered. The paper reports on the two authors' joint research projects in which children have been involved in various participatory activities. Using short extracts taken from conversations between an adult researcher and the children, we attempt to illustrate some of the benefits of researching 'with' children. The data indicate that children exercise their agency by shaping the research activities in their own ways, making spontaneous comments, asking unexpected questions, and selecting topics they find relevant. We also consider some of the challenges involved in this type of research, but conclude by recommending that working with children 'collaboratively' in research projects is an excellent learning experience for teachers, researchers, and children alike. Adapted from the source document

摘要：English language development or proficiency (ELD/P) standards promise to play an important role in the instruction and assessment of the language development of English language learner (ELL) pre-K-12 students, but to do so effectively they must convey the progression of student language learning in authentic school contexts for authentic academic purposes. The construct of academic English is defined as the vocabulary, sentence structures, and discourse associated with language used to teach academic content as well as the language used to navigate the school setting more generally. The construct definition is informed by a relatively modest number of empirical studies of textbooks, content assessments, and observations of classroom discourse. The standards of a state with a large ELL population and a large multi-state consortium are then reviewed to illustrate the role of the academic English construct in the standards' coverage of language modalities or domains, levels of attainment or proficiency, grade spans, and the needs of the large number of young English learners. Recommendations and potential strategies for validating, creating, and augmenting standards that reflect authentic uses of academic language in school settings are also made. [Reprinted by permission of Sage Publications, Ltd., copyright holder.]

摘要：Title III of Public Law 107-110 (No Child Left Behind; NCLB) provided for creation of assessments of English language learners (ELLs) and established, through the Enhanced Assessment Grant program, a platform from which four consortia of states developed ELL tests aligned to rigorous statewide content standards. Those four tests (ACCESS for ELLs, CELLA, ELDA, and MWA) are now in use in one or more states, along with a host of other commercially available or locally developed tests. The tests (those developed by consortia as well as the others) are quite similar in many ways, principally in their contents: Listening, Speaking, Reading, and Writing. Most measure these domains with a combination of multiple-choice (MC) and open-ended (OE) test items. This article provides an overview to the four consortium-developed tests as well as an in-depth analysis of one representative example. It also provides a summary of the characteristics of four commercially available tests. Not surprisingly, the four commercially available tests are rather similar to one another and to the consortium-developed tests in terms of content, psychometric characteristics, and development. The primary difference between the two sets is that the commercially available tests tend to report percentile ranks as well as proficiency levels. Now that the Race to the Top program is in place, we face many of the same challenges we faced a decade ago when NCLB was passed. While the Enhanced Assessment Grant competition emphasized summative assessment, the latest competition emphasizes formative assessment, which gives rise to the hope that educators can not only discover students' strengths and weaknesses with these new tests, but do so in a timely manner and have opportunities to use the information constructively. Current work by at least one organization is encouraging in this regard. [Reprinted by permission of Sage Publications, Ltd., copyright holder.]

摘要：Assessing Comprehension and Communication in English State-to-State for English Language Learners (ACCESS for ELLS), a large-scale, high-stakes, standards-based, and criterion-referenced language proficiency test developed by the World-Class Instructional Design and Assessment (WIDA) Consortium and administered in US-based K-12 classrooms, is reviewed. Fox notes that ACCESS for ELLS is distinguished from other No Child Left Behind language proficiency tests is (1) the size of the consortium of states using the test, which has grown to 24; (2) the number of resources to situate the test within pedagogical practice; and (3) the care with which WIDA has attempted to systematically align the test with proficiency standards and classroom practice. Adapted from the source document

摘要：One of the mandates of the No Child Left Behind Act is that states show adequate yearly progress in their English language learners' (ELLs) acquisition of English language proficiency. States are required to assess ELLs' English language proficiency annually in four language domains (listening, reading, writing, and speaking) to measure their progress; they are also required to report on a composite comprehension measure. Often the clearest way to effectively monitor students' progress is to measure assessment results across grades on the same scale. In measurement terms, scores from tests across all grade levels can be put on the same scale using vertical scaling. In addition, to help stakeholders understand and interpret the results, these scale scores are often interpreted in terms of proficiency levels. In this article, we use the vertical scaling of WIDA ACCESS for ELLs(TM), a large-scale K-12 Academic English Language Proficiency assessment to illustrate measurement and practical issues involved in this technique. We first give background on the need for vertical scaling. We then assess the literature on vertical scaling and describe the procedures used for WIDA ACCESS for ELLs(TM) to vertically scale test scores and interpret the results in terms of the WIDA ACCESS for ELLs(TM) Proficiency Scale. Next we review several studies that have been conducted to gauge the effectiveness of that scaling. We end the paper with a discussion of the broad issues that arise from vertical scaling. [Reprinted by permission of Sage Publications, Ltd., copyright holder.]

摘要：With the United States' adoption of a standards-based approach to education, most attention has focused on the large-scale, high-stakes assessments intended to measure students' mastery of standards for accountability purposes. Less attention has been paid to the role of standards-based assessments in the classroom. The purpose of this paper is to discuss key issues and challenges related to the use of standards-based classroom assessments to assess English language learners' English proficiency. First, the paper describes a study of a standards-based classroom assessment of English proficiency in a large urban school district in California. Second, using this study as an example and drawing from the literature in Language Testing on classroom assessment, this paper highlights the major issues and challenges involved in using English proficiency standards as the basis for classroom assessment. Finally, the article outlines a research agenda for the field given current developments in the areas of English proficiency standards and classroom assessment. [Reprinted by permission of Sage Publications, Ltd., copyright holder.]

摘要：The No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act (US Government, 2001), the current iteration of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965, makes it clear that states, districts, schools and teachers are accountable for the education of English language learners (ELLs), as well as all other students. To implement an accountability system, NCLB requires states to create content standards (a set of curricular goals and objectives) for English language arts, mathematics, and science. They must also develop and administer assessments that measure student progress toward mastery of these content standards. Finally, states, districts, and schools must demonstrate that they are making adequate yearly progress toward bringing all students to a previously established level of mastery of these standards (called Proficient) with the goal that by the year 2014 all students will achieve this level. [Reprinted by permission of Sage Publications, Ltd., copyright holder.]

摘要：Think-aloud protocols (TAPs) are frequently used in research on essay rating processes. However, there are very few empirical studies of the completeness of TAP data and the effects of this technique on rater performance (i.e., rating processes and outcomes). This study aims to start to address this research gap. As part of a larger study on rater decision-making behaviors, 11 novice and 14 experienced raters rated, both analytically and holistically, a sample of ESL essays silently and while thinking aloud. The raters were then interviewed about their perceptions of thinking aloud and its effects. Essay scores were submitted to FACETS analyses, while TAP and interview data were analyzed qualitatively. Score and qualitative data analyses provided evidence and explanations concerning the veridicality and reactivity of TAPs across rater groups (novice vs. experienced) and rating scales (holistic vs. analytic). The paper concludes with several theoretical and methodological implications and questions for future studies using TAPs to build models of and compare essay rating processes across individuals, groups and contexts. [Reprinted by permission of Sage Publications, Ltd., copyright holder.]

摘要：The purpose of this study was to explore whether the results of Tree Based Regression (TBR) analyses, informed by a validated cognitive model, would enhance the interpretation of item difficulties in terms of the cognitive processes involved in answering the reading items included in two forms of the Michigan English Language Assessment Battery (MELAB). A cognitive model was first generated to explain the performance of the MELAB reading items, and then validated by expert judgment and student verbal protocols. Next, the validated model was used in the TBR analyses to obtain the final trees for each form. Finally, the cognitive processes (i.e., reading processes and testing strategies) measured by each item were traced back for each item in the terminal nodes of each tree. The results revealed that TBR, informed by a supportable cognitive theory, appears to be a promising addition to statistical item analysis that can be effectively used to enhance the interpretation of item analyses results. [Reprinted by permission of Sage Publications, Ltd., copyright holder.]

摘要：After explaining why consideration of the use of technology in second language (L2) teaching in the primary and secondary sectors is necessary, this systematic review presents a keyword map of 117 studies of technology in L2 learning since 1990. It reveals that research effort in these educational sectors has increased in line with technological developments and there have been important differences between the primary and secondary sectors in the adoption of applications. There then follows an in-depth review of 47 post-2000 studies investigating the efficacy of technology in the teaching of L2 English. It asks what technology has been used and why, what evidence there is that technology facilitates language learning, and what other insights can be drawn from the research in this field. The evidence that technology has a direct beneficial impact on linguistic outcomes is slight and inconclusive, but it may impact indirectly and positively on learner attitudes and behaviours and may promote collaboration. On the whole, the research reviewed lacked the quality that would reassure practitioners and policy-makers that technological investment is warranted. We argue that future research needs to provide a tighter link between technological applications, Second Language Acquisition (SLA) theory, and learning outcomes. Adapted from the source document

摘要：This is an overview of research on applied linguistics and foreign language education in Turkey, surveying nearly 130 studies from the period 2005-2009. Following a brief presentation of the history and current sociopolitical situation of foreign language education in Turkey, the article focuses on research that characterizes the most common interests of academics and practitioners in the following areas: foreign language teaching and teachers, foreign language learning and learners, foreign language teacher education, the four language skills, measurement and evaluation, and the relationship between language and culture. Our discussion of each area is based on information extracted from local professional journals, conference proceedings and papers and Ph.D. dissertations. The studies examined reveal that, in general, practical concerns assume priority over theoretical issues, a substantial proportion of research being conducted on EFL learning and teaching. Adapted from the source document

摘要：Several projects that are in progress at the Research Centre for Language Education and Acquisition in Multilingual Societies (RCLEAMS), one of four Institute-level Research Centres at the Hong Kong Institute of Education, are highlighted. These include projects in the following fields: (1) the Asian Corpus of English (ACE);(2) trilingualism and trilingual education in minority regions of China; (3) linguistic and cultural ecology; (4) using the local/regional language as the language of internationalization (Cantonese and Putonghua in Hong Kong); (5) perceptions of English language suitability and processes of language assessment recruitment in Filipino call centres; (6) effects of language aptitude and personality on linguistic performance in English as a second language in two Chinese populations; (7) boundary-crossing teacher trainees; (8) vocabulary development among learners of English in a Hong Kong primary school; and (8) the Multilingual project: policy and implementation. Adapted from the source document

摘要：This paper investigates the consequences of L2 use in university lectures. Data in the study stem from parallel lectures held by the same experienced lecturer in Danish (L1) and English (L2). It is found that the lecturer takes 22% longer to present the same content in L2 compared to L1, and that the lecturer speaks 23% more slowly in L2 than in L1. In the second part of the paper these differences are investigated through a qualitative analysis of parallel extracts from the same data set. Here it is found that when teaching in English the lecturer uses a higher degree of repetition and adopts a more formal and condensed style as compared to the rhetorical style in L1. Finally, the potential consequences of these quantitative and qualitative differences for student learning are discussed. We analyse five science lectures: three in Danish (L1) and two in English (L2). The same lecturer takes 22% longer to present the same content in L2. The lecturer speaks 23% more slowly in L2. The lecturer uses a higher degree of repetition in L2. The lecturer has a more formal and condensed style in L2. [Copyright The American University; published by Elsevier Ltd.]

摘要：The process of writing journal articles is increasingly being seen as a collaborative process, especially where the authors are English as an Additional Language (EAL) academics. This study examines the changes made in terms of register to EAL writers' journal articles by a native-speaker writing centre advisor at a private university in Turkey. An innovative five category framework focusing specifically on nouns and associated elements is described and used to classify the advisor's changes to a sample of nine research articles in the field of social science. An analysis of these changes concludes that non-finite clauses are especially underused by the writers in this study. The implications of EAL writers' under use of this structure and other academic written register forms are considered, and suggestions are made for raising awareness of register, both for EAL writers and the language professionals who help them. [Copyright The American University; published by Elsevier Ltd.]

摘要：This article explores Japanese EFL learners' classroom silence in a Japanese EFL context. The existence of silence in second language learning contexts can be a source of conflict between students and teachers and even among students themselves. It can also bean obstacle to acquiring the target language. In order to tackle this problem and to illustrate the dynamic characteristics of classroom silence, this study draws on insights from the ethnographic approach and interprets the roots, functions, and meanings of silence from a sociocultural perspective. It was conducted through a questionnaire survey which aimed to elicit learners' and teachers' views on silence and also to examine whether a mismatch of perceptions exists. The issues of identity and the role of cultural and contextual factors in the use of silence are discussed and possible pedagogical approaches which could be implemented in varied learning contexts are suggested. Adapted from the source document

摘要：The traditional division of conditionals into four main types (zero, first, second, and third) has long been called into question. Unfortunately, the awareness that this description does not reflect conditional patterns in actual usage has not generally been reflected in EFL coursebooks. This article re-examines the arguments for a description of conditional patterns which reflects actual usage and uses corpus data to demonstrate the kind of patterns in frequent use. It then suggests two teaching approaches that may help teachers to tackle a variety of conditional patterns in the classroom. Adapted from the source document

摘要：A significant amount of literature in English as a foreign language (EFL) education has expression reservations concerning the presence of culture in EFL curricula, a trend almost certain to continue as English as an international language (EIL) develops further. Sybing contends that the current state of English in the world has developed to the point where proponents advocating EIL and non-standard English varieties in the World Englishes model are fighting obstacles that either no longer exist or have evolved over time. Sybing argues that "native-speaker culture cannot simply be separated from a language that has already left its cultural imprint on non-English-speaking cultures." Adapted from the source document

摘要：A case study of the foreign cultures represented in two English language textbooks used by Hong Kong secondary schools was conducted. Its aim was to investigate whether the representation of foreign cultures in these textbooks reflected the status of English as an international language. In order to do this, references to foreign cultures were categorized into four aspects: products, practices, perspectives, and persons. It was found overall that the representation favoured the cultures of English-speaking countries, while the cultures of Africa were under-represented. The selection of English language textbooks and the implications for redressing the imbalance in cultural content are discussed. Adapted from the source document